| Hard Prerequisites |
| IMPORTANT: Please review these prerequisites, they include important information that will help you with this content. |
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Functions in Kotlin are declared using the fun keyword
fun double(x: Int): Int {
}
Calling functions uses the traditional approach
val result = double(2)
Calling member functions uses the dot notation
Sample().foo() // create instance of class Sample and calls foo
Functions can also be called using infix notations when
// Define extension to Int
infix fun Int.shl(x: Int): Int {
...
}
// call extension function using infix notation
1 shl 2
// is the same as
1.shl(2)
Function parameters are defined using Pascal notation, i.e. name: type. Parameters are separated using commas. Each parameter must be explicitly typed.
fun powerOf(number: Int, exponent: Int) {
...
}
Function parameters can have default values, which are used when a corresponding argument is omitted. This allows for a reduced number of overloads compared to other languages.
fun read(b: Array<Byte>, off: Int = 0, len: Int = b.size()) {
...
}
Default values are defined using the = after type along with the value.
Overriding methods always use the same default parameter values as the base method. When overriding a method with default parameters values, the default parameter values must be omitted from the signature:
open class A {
open fun foo(i: Int = 10) { ... }
}
class B : A() {
override fun foo(i: Int) { ... } // no default value allowed
}
Function parameters can be named when calling functions. This is very convenient when a function has a high number of parameters or default ones.
Given the following function
fun reformat(str: String,
normalizeCase: Boolean = true,
upperCaseFirstLetter: Boolean = true,
divideByCamelHumps: Boolean = false,
wordSeparator: Char = ' ') {
...
}
we could call this using default arguments
reformat(str)
However, when calling it with non-default, the call would look something like
reformat(str, true, true, false, '_')
With named arguments we can make the code much more readable
reformat(str,
normalizeCase = true,
upperCaseFirstLetter = true,
divideByCamelHumps = false,
wordSeparator = '_'
)
and if we do not need all arguments
reformat(str, wordSeparator = '_')
Note that the named argument syntax cannot be used when calling Java functions, because Java bytecode does not always preserve names of function parameters.
If a function does not return any useful value, its return type is Unit. Unit is a type with only one value - Unit. This value does not have to be returned explicitly
fun printHello(name: String?): Unit {
if (name != null)
println("Hello ${name}")
else
println("Hi there!")
// `return Unit` or `return` is optional
}
The Unit return type declaration is also optional. The above code is equivalent to
fun printHello(name: String?) {
...
}
When a function returns a single expression, the curly braces can be omitted and the body is specified after a = symbol
fun double(x: Int): Int = x * 2
Explicitly declaring the return type is optional when this can be inferred by the compiler
fun double(x: Int) = x * 2
Functions with block body must always specify return types explicitly, unless it’s intended for them to return Unit, in which case it is optional. Kotlin does not infer return types for functions with block bodies because such functions may have complex control flow in the body, and the return type will be non-obvious to the reader (and sometimes even for the compiler).
A parameter of a function (normally the last one) may be marked with vararg modifier:
fun <T> asList(vararg ts: T): List<T> {
val result = ArrayList<T>()
for (t in ts) // ts is an Array
result.add(t)
return result
}
allowing a variable number of arguments to be passed to the function:
val list = asList(1, 2, 3)
Inside a function a vararg-parameter of type T is visible as an array of T, i.e. the ts variable in the example above has type Array.
Only one parameter may be marked as vararg. If a vararg parameter is not the last one in the list, values for the following parameters can be passed using the named argument syntax, or, if the parameter has a function type, by passing a lambda outside parentheses.
When we call a vararg-function, we can pass arguments one-by-one, e.g. asList(1, 2, 3), or, if we already have an array and want to pass its contents to the function, we use the spread operator (prefix the array with *):
val a = arrayOf(1, 2, 3)
val list = asList(-1, 0, *a, 4)
In Kotlin functions can be declared at top level in a file, meaning you do not need to create a class to hold a function, like languages such as Java, C# or Scala. In addition to top level functions, Kotlin functions can also be declared local, as member functions and extension functions.
Kotlin supports local functions, i.e. a function inside another function
fun dfs(graph: Graph) { fun dfs(current: Vertex, visited: Set) { if (!visited.add(current)) return for (v in current.neighbors) dfs(v, visited) }
dfs(graph.vertices[0], HashSet())
} Local function can access local variables of outer functions (i.e. the closure), so in the case above, the visited can be a local variable
fun dfs(graph: Graph) {
val visited = HashSet<Vertex>()
fun dfs(current: Vertex) {
if (!visited.add(current)) return
for (v in current.neighbors)
dfs(v)
}
dfs(graph.vertices[0])
}
A member function is a function that is defined inside a class or object
class Sample() {
fun foo() { print("Foo") }
}
Member functions are called with dot notation
Sample().foo() // creates instance of class Sample and calls foo
Functions can have generic parameters which are specified using angle brackets before the function name
fun <T> singletonList(item: T): List<T> {
// ...
}
Kotlin supports a style of functional programming known as tail recursion. This allows some algorithms that would normally be written using loops to instead be written using a recursive function, but without the risk of stack overflow. When a function is marked with the tailrec modifier and meets the required form, the compiler optimises out the recursion, leaving behind a fast and efficient loop based version instead.
tailrec fun findFixPoint(x: Double = 1.0): Double
= if (x == Math.cos(x)) x else findFixPoint(Math.cos(x))
This code calculates the fixpoint of cosine, which is a mathematical constant. It simply calls Math.cos repeatedly starting at 1.0 until the result doesn’t change any more, yielding a result of 0.7390851332151607. The resulting code is equivalent to this more traditional style:
private fun findFixPoint(): Double {
var x = 1.0
while (true) {
val y = Math.cos(x)
if (x == y) return y
x = y
}
}
To be eligible for the tailrec modifier, a function must call itself as the last operation it performs. You cannot use tail recursion when there is more code after the recursive call, and you cannot use it within try/catch/finally blocks. Currently tail recursion is only supported in the JVM backend.